Tag Archives: tetrahydrocannabinol

medical marijuana

A review of mechanisms in medical marijuana: the endocannabinoid pathway, receptors, tetrahydrocannabinol, and cannabidiol 

Virginia Thornley, M.D., Neurologist, Epileptologist

@VThornleyMD

April 28, 2018

Introduction

The Cannabis sativa plant has been known since the beginning of time. It can be traced back 5000 years ago when it was first known to man to alleviate common complaints. It came into the American pharmacopeia in the 19th century then abolished in the 1930’s, likely not coincidentally as the era of prohibition was lifted. It is known to treat ailments such as chronic pain and migraine. In the middle ages, it was used to treat headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, bacterial infections and pain from rheumatological conditions. It was previously known for its psychoactive properties.  It is recently making a resurgence in popularity regarding its medical value. The issue is a topic of hot debate as state laws are at odds with federal laws. Currently, as of April 2018, it is still recognized as a category 1 drug, meaning it is not officially proclaimed to have any medical value despite the long rich history of treating medical symptoms. It is lumped in with other drugs of abuse such as heroin and cocaine.

Background on the Cannabis sativa plant and their metabolites

The Cannabis sativa plant is abundantly rich in phytocannabinoids, the most commonly known and used for its therapeutic value are cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol. The endocannabinoid pathway is comprised of receptors that are coupled with G proteins and cannabinoids (1). In the Cannabis sativa plant, there are 80 phytocannabinoids that can bind to a cannabinoid receptor.

There are 8 major cannabinoids including cannabigerolic acid, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabolinic acid A, cannabidiolic acid A, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabigerol, cannabidiol, cannabichromene, and tetrahydrocannabivarin in the different strains of Cannabis sativa (1).

Ehlsoly, et al, classified it into 11 categories: cannabigerol, cannabichromene, cannabidiol, ∆9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol, ∆8-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabicyclol, cannabielsoin, cannabinol, cannabinodiol, cannabitriol, and miscellaneous. ∆9 -trans-tetrahydrocannabinol , cannabinol, and cannabidiol are the most well-studied and well-known.

Cannabidiol is extracted from the hemp portion of the plant considered a male part of the plant, there are no psychoactive properties in cannabidiol. Psychoactivity is defined as anything above 0.3% of THC. Tetrahydrocannabinol is derived from the female portion of the plant, particularly the flowers. Conditions are such that in nurseries only a certain amount of sunlight is given to the plants so that specific strains can be grown. Some plants will be richer in cannabidiol, others will be more THC pure and other swill have an equal amount of CBD and THC but it depends on how the plants are grown and under what conditions.

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Endocannabinoid pathway

It is through the endocannabinoid pathway that one gets the sense of well being after exercise or eating chocolate. It is not through endorphins, serotonin or noradrenergic neurotransmitters as they are too large to cross the blood-brain barrier. Tetrahydrocannabinol acts as a mimetic of Anandamide while cannabidiol acts as a mimetic of 2-Arachidinoylglyerol (or 2-AG). The endocannabinoid system works through cannabinoids, the receptors, transporters, and enzymes.

Receptors

The phytocannabinoids work on cannabinoid receptors. The endocannabinoid system is mediated by 3 parts: the cannabinoids, the cannabinoid receptors, and the enzymes. The receptors are of 2 types, CB1 which is found primarily in the nervous system especially in the areas that subserve pain modulation, memory and movement. The CB2 receptor is more peripherally found specifically in the immune system. The CB2 receptor is found to a lesser extent in other organs including tissues of reproduction, pituitary, heart, lungs, adrenal and gastrointestinal systems.  Cannabinoids also react with the TRPV receptor or the transient receptor cation channel subfamily V. They can also act on G receptors including GPR55 thought to be significant in controlling seizures. Other receptors include GPR12, GPR18, and GPR119 (2).

Tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol and their effect on receptors

THC and CBD are the most well-known and well-studied. THC has psychoactive properties and works as a partial agonist on the CB1 receptor and the CB2 receptor. Cannabidiol which has no psychoactive properties works as an antagonist on CB1/CB2 receptor and an agonist on the CB1 and CB2 receptor. Rather than decreasing the effects of THC, it works in a synergistic manner in combination with THC. It potentiates the THC effects by increasing the CB1 densities. CBD increases vanilloid pain receptors, reduces metabolism and reduces re-uptake of anandamide, THC’s mimetic component. Other studies suggest CBD acts as an indirect agonist by interacting with the CB1 receptor so there are less psychoactive symptoms from THC when the two are combined.

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Pharmacokinetics of tetrahydrocannabinol

Regardless of the way of taking it, the protein binding and the and volume of distribution are not affected by the route of taking it. Pharmacokinetics of creams and vaporizers are unclear. Smoking THC appears to exert an effect within minutes of intake and bioavailability is variable depending upon the extent of inhalation ranging between 2-69%. The effect is within minutes. Half-life increases with each inhalation at 2 puffs inhaled for THC it is 1.9 hours and 5.3 hours in CBD at 8 inhalations it is 5.2 hours in THC and 9.4 hours in CBD at a dosage of 5.4mgTHC/5.0mg CBD and 21.5mg THC/20 mg CBD respectively.

Oral routes may seem to be safer but have more adverse effects including GI symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Oral mucosal absorption is rapid within 15 minutes to 60 minutes. Oral tablets are lower in the rate of absorption at about 0.6 to 2.5 hours. The rate of elimination, when taken orally, is biphasic, initially occurring at 4 hours then 24-38 hours after ingestion.

In summary

There is much research ongoing on the mechanisms underlying the medical value of medical marijuana. It is now thought that cannabigerolic acid may have medicinal properties as well. So far, the most well-known and well studied are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol. Most likely as research continues, greater value will likely be attributed towards the phytocannabinoids.

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References

  1. Wang, et al, “Quantitative Determination of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, CBG, CBD, their acid precursors and five other neutral cannabinoids by UHPLC-UV-MS,” Planta. Med, 2019, mar., 84 (4):260-266.
  2.  Landa, et al, “Medical cannabis in the treatment of cancer pain and spastic conditions and options of drug delivery in clinical practice,”Biomed. Pap. Med. Fac. Univ. Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub., 2018, Mar; 162(1):18-25.
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medical marijuana

Cannabinoids: the other side of the coin, side effects, drug-drug interaction and possible problems of cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol

Virginia Thornley, M.D., Board-Certified Neurologist, Epileptologist

@VThornleyMD

April 6, 2018

 

Introduction

Medical marijuana seems like the shining breakthrough drug the shining pill in armor, the magic pill that seems to cure everything. However, there are always two sides to every coin. One must still proceed with caution. The phytocannabinoids, cannabidiol, and tetrahydrocannabinol exert their effects through the endocannabinoid pathway, the CB1 receptor is most abundantly found in the nervous system. Cannabidiol which has no euphoria acts weakly with the CB1 receptor almost as a reverse agonist blocking the THC from exerting its effect offsetting potent side effects of tetrahydrocannabinol.

The medical benefits are overwhelmingly numerous including ameliorating seizures, spasms from multiple sclerosis, peripheral neuropathy in HIV patients, chronic debilitating pain, post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and other associated diseases. Despite the stigma of using it, the delay in clinical trials and marked hesitation of the medical community, medical marijuana has landed and there is no going back. Yet even with its numerous health benefits, it is always prudent to take a step back and examine any flaws as with any other new kid on the block or any new agent that comes along even though it’s been around for thousands of years.

Is marijuana safe for medical use? The take on medical marijuana by the FDA

So far from the FDA official website, the FDA does not recognize medical marijuana coming from the botanical plant with any medical indication. The FDA does not recognize it to be safe or beneficial for any type of disease or condition. The FDA will facilitate any companies interested in bringing quality products including science-based research. The full take of the FDA on marijuana can be found here https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm421168.htm#use

Long-term effects on the brain

Perusing the scientific literature, it is difficult to find any long-term damage to the brain. There was a report in a heavy marijuana user where there was damage to the corpus callosum, possibly worse with young users (1). This is a small study of 11 heavy marijuana users with 11 age-matched cohorts. Diffusion tensor imaging was used. Previous reports alluded towards poor cognition with heavy marijuana use. This study is aligned with that. It was suggested that there may be increased diffusibility within the white matter tracts of the corpus callosum. Young age is thought to make the corpus more susceptible to white matter damage. The only caveat is this is with heavy use and the substance found in recreational marijuana is going to be a different form compared to medical marijuana extracted from the marijuana plant used for medicinal purposes. It is not clear if this report would carry over to medical marijuana users where the preparation of the product is much different(1).

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Effect on schizophrenia spectrum diseases

In a large study of 171 patients, it was found that with heavy use of cannabis, the age of onset of schizophrenia spectrum disorders seems to occur earlier (6). This is one of the reasons why in some dispensaries, it is not sold to patients with a history of schizophrenia. There are some anecdotal reports of some patients having a paranoia with medical marijuana that is reversible once taken off.

Effect on the heart, reports of myocardial infarcts and ST elevations

While the literature suggests low toxicity and most side effects are related to cognition and gastrointestinal problems, there are several cannabis-associated myocardial infarcts in the literature. The dispensaries in the state of Florida use a previous history of a previous myocardial infarct as a contraindication in using medical marijuana. These were synthetic drugs used recreationally. There was one case report where a heavy user suffered from an ST elevation and subsequent myocardial infarct after becoming toxic to marijuana used recreationally.  In one study, synthetic cannabis was used, the myocardial happened to a young patient where an atheromatous plaque was excluded as the source. Etiology and mechanism are unclear why infarcts should occur. It is quite possible that because it works on the 5HT receptor for anxiety which can cause vasoconstriction, this may be one mechanism. Other studies are needed to elucidate the mechanism of action.

Drug-drug interactions

Because medical marijuana is used as an adjunctive agent for epilepsy, perhaps off-label since it has not been approved through FDA as an anti-epileptic agent yet, it was found that medical marijuana used in conjunction with Clobazam (Onfi) tended to elevate Onfi at higher levels.

In one small clinical study, in 13 patients, 9 had an increase of about 60 in the Clobazam level and by 300 in Norclobazam level. There was, however, a tremendous reduction of seizures by >50% but Onfi (Clobazam and Norclobazam levels) should be monitored (3) on a routine basis to avoid any untoward toxicity.

Other milder symptoms

In one large study on Lennox-Gastaut syndrome where cannabidiol was titrated to a 20mg/kg over a course of 14 weeks, mild to moderate symptoms were noted including pyrexia, sedation, dizziness, and diarrhea. However, the titration rate was very rapid and the patents who were 50kg were quickly at 1000mg within 14 weeks which does not usually happen in the real world. Medications are usually increased over a longer period of time in slower increments.

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In summary

While everybody is touting the horn of medical marijuana it is always prudent to stand back and ensure there are no possible risk factors for adverse side effects. The most serious and common seen in the literature appear to be related to schizophrenia spectrum disorders and cannabis associated myocardial infarct. The only caveat is that the literature is peppered with these reports, however, the quality of the recreational drugs are vastly different from medical marijuana which tends to be organic and all natural extracted from the plant in licensed medical dispensaries. The extraction of the medical components is vastly different from the smoked synthetic version of tetrahydrocannabinol. So, is difficult to know if these reports would actually corroborate with use in medical marijuana. The ones with side effects were heavy users of recreational smoked types of marijuana, it is unclear if it was synthetic or organic. As the popularity of medical marijuana progresses, more information will be available regarding the side effect profile.

References

  1. Arnone, et al, “Corpus callosum damage in heavy use: preliminary evidence from diffusion tensor tractography and tract-based spatial statistics,” Neuroimage, 2008, Jul., 1, 41 (3): 1067-74.  “J Addict Med. 2017 Sep/Oct;11(5):405-407. doi: 10.1097/ADM.0000000000000326.
  2. Volpon, et al, “Multiple cerebral infarcts in a young patient associated with marijuana use, ” Journ. Addic. Med, 2017, Sep./Oct., 11(5):405-407.
  3. Geffrey, Drug-drug interaction between clobazam and cannabidiol in children with refractory epilepsy,” Epilepsia, 2015, Aug., 58 (8):1246-1251.
  4. Stewart, et al, “Obstructive sleep apnea due to laryngospasm links ictal to postictal events in SUDEP cases and offers practical biomarkers for review of past cases and prevention of new ones,” Epilepsia, 2017, Jun., 58(6): e87-90
  5. https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm421168.htm#use
  6. Shahzade, et al, “Patterns in adolescent cannabis use predict the onset and symptom structure of schizophrenia-spectrum disorder,” Schizophrenia Research, 2018, Feb., 2 pii S090-9964 doi:10. 1016/j. schres. 2018.01.008 (Epub ahead of print)
  7. Orsini, et al, “Prolonged cardiac arrest complicating massive ST-segment elevation myocardial infarct associated with myocardial consumption,” J. Community Hosp. Intern. Med. Perspect, 2016, Sep., 7. 6 (4):31695
  8. Thiele, et al, “Cannabidiol in patients with seizures from Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome (GWPCARE4): a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled phase 3 trial,” Lancet, 2018, Jan., 390 (10125):1085-1096

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury among military veterans and use of non-intoxicating medical marijuana as a treatment

 

Virginia Thornley, M.D., Neurologist, Epileptologist

@VThornleyMD

March 28, 2018

Introduction

Post-traumatic stress disorder occurs due to a single or a sequence of traumatic events which causes a great deal of anxiety when exposed to situations similar to the event. Flashbacks and nightmares may occur. In military veterans returning from the Iraqi or war in Afghanistan and even to this day in Vietnam War veterans, emotional disruption is noticeable. It is difficult to know if this is related to blast injury or is a symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder.

PTSD correlated with mild traumatic brain injury

In a retrospective study reviewing medical records of 27,169 military personnel of the U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC), 2831 met criteria of mild traumatic brain injury using the Immediate post-concussion assessment cognitive test, PTSD checklist, and the post-concussion symptom scale. Of these, 28% exhibited symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Military veterans of blunt, blast or a combination injury had a higher percent of meeting criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder than those without mild traumatic brain injury. Those with blast/combination injury had a higher percent of post-traumatic stress disorder and performed worse with visual memory and time for reacting compared the cohort without any blunt or mild traumatic brain injury.  Repetitive exposure to blast-type injuries may have a lingering effect (2). This study found a  high degree of PTSD symptoms in those with blast, blunt and combination injury compared to the cohort without it.

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In a study, disrupted emotional responses correlate with PTSD rather than blast-related traumatic brain injury

Another study tried to dissect whether the emotional responses of war veterans are due to PTSD or due to the mild brain injury itself.  In one study of 123 military veterans from the war in Iraq and Afghanistan, affective evaluations and psychological assessments were made in response to pleasant, neutral, unpleasant and war-related images.  Those with emotional disruption due to PTSD rated pleasant images as unpleasant and had increased physiological responses towards combat-related images. Symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder included increased skin conductance responses, greater corrugator muscle electromyography responses, and reduced heart decelerations. There were no effects noted in veterans with mild traumatic brain injury.  This points towards the emotional disruption seen in military veterans as related with post-traumatic stress disorder rather than due to the mild traumatic brain injury itself. This study may help guide treatment as military veterans transition to civilian life (1).

Medical marijuana and mechanism of action, a non-intoxicating solution when cannabidiol is used alone or in conjunction with low dose tetrahydrocannabinol

Cannabidiol is a non-intoxicating endocannabinoid that works within the endocannabinoid system found naturally in our systems. It has only a weak affinity to the CB1 receptor which is found abundantly within the neurological system.  CB1 receptors are found to be increased in response to cerebral cell damage and seem to work as a repair mechanism for neural systems that are not functioning. Tetrahydrocannabinol at low concentrations has medical properties without the intoxication of high dose THC. THC should be used in combination with CBD to offset the possible side effects such as hyperactivity.

There are increasing studies showing the value of medical marijuana, especially in the central nervous system especially given the large abundance of the CB1 receptor within the nervous system. The receptors are found to be upregulated in the face of disease suggesting a cell repair role or a response to the abnormalities within the brain, For example, in patient with seizures, the CB1 receptor is found to be increased in the temporal lobe within the dentate gyrus compared to other cells almost as a response to the aberrant system within the cortex. The receptors are found to be increased in patients with Parkinson’s disease.

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Medical Marijuana as a solution for symptoms of cognitive impairment in war veterans

In one study, 24 patients were enrolled in a study for executive function and were registered medical marijuana users. After 3 months, 11 patients returned and using the Stroop Color Word Test, were found to have a higher level of executive function and increased speed completing tasks without being inaccurate. Patients reported less insomnia, less depression, better attention, less impulsivity and a better quality of life. There was less use of pharmacologic use and less use of opioid agents by 42% in conjunction with medical marijuana. Larger clinical randomized controlled clinical studies are needed.

Medical marijuana seems to be an excellent agent in those affected by traumatic brain injury.

Medical Marijuana as a solution for and PTSD symptom in war veterans

Cannabidiol works at the level of the 5HT1 receptor causing patients to feel less anxious and may be used in post-traumatic stress disorder. In addition, it has been found to have a role in modulating memory and instead of the learned fear response and may help with PTSD by modulating the conditioned response to a stimulus that normally begets anxiety and fearfulness. In other words, instead of the heart rate increasing or having flashbacks when a war scene is on TV, medical marijuana can exert its effect by modulating behavior by changing the learned response by not responding the same way and being calm in face of a previously anxiety-inciting war scene(4).

In conclusion

In summary, PTSD and traumatic brain injury are real problems faced by war veterans returning with blast injury, blunt-injury or combination type combat-related injuries. Medical marijuana may be an excellent non-intoxicating solution when cannabidiol is taken or combined with low dose tetrahydrocannabinol which can help with depression, anxiety and help modulate responses to post-traumatic stress disorder. Medical marijuana can help with executive function and attention and may be beneficial in treating war veterans suffering from mild traumatic brain injury.

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References

  1. Marquardt, et al, “Symptoms of Post-traumatic stress rather than mild traumatic brain injury best account for altered emotional responses in military veterans,” J. Trauma Stress, 2018, Feb., 31 (1):114-124.
  2. Kontos, et al, “Residual effects of combat-related mild traumatic brain injury, “J. Neurotrauma, 2013, Apr., 15, 30 (8):680-6.
  3. Gruber, et al, “Splendor in the Grass? A pilot study assessing the impact of medical marijuana on executive function,” Front. Pharmacology, 2016,. Oct., 13 (7):355.
  4. Uhernik, et al, “Learning and memory are modulated by cannabidiol when administered during trace fear-conditioning,” Neurobiology of Learned Memory, 2018, Feb., 9, 149:58-76. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.02.009 (Epub ahead of print)
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chronic pain

Medical Marijuana: a non-intoxicating pain-relieving solution to the opioid epidemic?

Virginia Thornley, M.D., Neurologist, Epileptologist

March 24, 2018

Introduction

Any news outlet you peruse is bound to have mention of the current opioid crisis looming on the horizon. Opioids are commonly prescribed as the last resort for patients with chronic pain who have failed conventional medications, interventional measures such as epidural injections or surgery, non-pharmacologic measures such as physical therapy and even Eastern techniques such as acupuncture. With tolerance a common problem and patients needing higher and higher dosages for pain control because of the properties of opioids, it is little wonder that chronic pain control is difficult to maintain.

The hot topic of debate in many states is the recognition of medical marijuana as a legitimate medication for chronic ailments. However, because of the stigma it has incurred being well-known for its psychoactive properties and widely seen in pop culture in movies with kingpins smoking it for recreation, the medicinal values are often overshadowed and lack of side effects in low doses is easily overlooked.

Not your stereotypical patient and not your direct referral

Patients and even physicians likely have a preconceived notion of who seeks medical marijuana. While chronic pain is top of the list, often times, it is discovered by the hard-working carpenter who discovered it online and found a small scientific article on non-pharmacologic treatments trying to come off sedating pain-relieving medications. It will be the former business owner who lived an enjoyable life being active dancing or the woman afflicted with an autoimmune disorder and has failed every medication under the sun. Many times patients come in not because they want to feel good but because it is their last resort and they’ve exhausted every treatment option known to mankind. They dislike the side effects of the strong painkillers such as opioids and just want the pain to stop and live a normal life. It is amazing how indirectly patients hear about the wonders of medical marijuana, it will usually be a neighbor who swears by it, or somebody’s friend who mentions it out of the blue.  Oftentimes, it is by word of mouth since the few physicians interested in recommending it are very reluctant to advertise with good reason.

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Mechanisms of cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol

Medical marijuana has been used since B.C. period for thousands of years as a medication. It was incorporated into the pharmacopeia of American medicine in the 1850’s until it was banned in the 1930’s. It regained popularity and notoriety as a recreational substance. However, more and more patients are turning towards this now alternative medication after years of frustration towards the ineffectiveness and adverse effects of conventional medications.  The endocannabinoid pathway is found inherently in the system and is responsible for the runner’s high that people get after a vigorous run or after exercising and gives the sense of well-being. The CB1 receptor is found most abundantly in the central nervous system which is likely why many neurological conditions are found to benefit from its use. The CB2 receptor is most commonly found in the immune system. As more research is pursued, there are CB receptors found diffusely throughout many organ systems.  Cannabidiol weakly interacts with the CB1 receptor. It takes at least 100 times cannabidiol to attain the same intoxication one gets with tetrahydrocannabinol, the substance which is more popular and found in the marijuana joints people smoke to obtain euphoria. THC at low concentrations is effective in treating many different medical conditions. It must be used in conjunction with CBD so that side effects are offset. Cannabidiol has no intoxication while low doses of THC does not give euphoria one associates with this drug. There is no tolerance.

Scientific evidence cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol work in chronic pain and other medical diseases

In animal studies, it is well known to reduce seizures by inhibiting the excitation within the hippocampus of the brain where seizures are commonly propagated (http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2017/09/26/1711351114).There are many clinical trials in humans attesting its efficacy at controlling seizures effectively.  CB1 receptors appear to be increased in many neurological disorders which implies it is a compensatory mechanism for diseases. In Parkinson’s disease, there are increased CB1 receptors which may help with the reduced dopamine commonly found in Parkinson’s disease. 9tetrahydrocannabinol was found to lower intraocular pressure in glaucoma in rabbits (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6329602). Sativex is a combination of THC:CBD which reduces spasms in patients with multiple sclerosis and has been available in Europe for several years now with very little side effects http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/87/9/944. There is extensive evidence in both animal and human models that it works in chronic pain (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26830780). Many diseases are being evaluated for mechanisms on which CBD and THC may exert its effects. It has been found to have anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties which are important mechanisms by which many diseases cause pathology. In cancer cell cultures, it has been found to reduce proliferation of tumor cells in urologic cancer and reduce the pro-inflammatory states that are necessary for metastatic conditions (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5434502/).CBD interacts with the 5HT1 receptor where many anti-depressants and anxiolytic medications exert their effects, making CBD an effective anxiolytic. It works to stimulate appetite and is commonly used by patients with cancer for anorexia and end-stage cancer pain.

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In conclusion

In summary, cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol are effective medications in treating pain from many chronic illnesses and is not reserved for patients with terminal illness. Despite the reticence of physicians, Congress and even patients, there is overwhelming evidence that cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol are effective in many different diseases, although in some conditions there’s a long way to go from preclinical data to human trials.  It is fairly clear in many disease states, medical marijuana is significantly effective. There is no tolerance and may be an effective treatment for patients with chronic pain. CBD by itself has no euphoric properties and low concentrations of THC do not give intoxicating psychoactive effects. These are 2 alternatives that may provide relief and solution to the growing epidemic of the opioid crisis.

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Anxiety, Depression, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Uncategorized

Cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol: effectiveness in post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression

Virginia Thornley, M.D., Neurologist, Epileptologist

March 20, 2018

Post-traumatic stress disorder is the silent disorder that could be affecting the co-worker who sits one cubicle over from you. When one hears of post-traumatic stress disorder, one thinks of traumatizing incidents such as war, abuse or some other devastating event but can occur even in situations such as car accidents or a spouse of many decades suddenly leaving. It is the quiet disorder that if you do not expound on it, nobody really knows about it. Because of the stigma surrounding psychological disorders, often times, help is not sought in a timely manner.

It is often characterized by nightmares waking someone up in the middle of the night or sudden flashbacks when placed in a situation similar to the traumatic event.  Management includes working with a psychiatrist using conventional medications and a psychologist using behavioral therapy. It is not uncommon for a patient to have to go through many different anti-depressants or anxiolytics before one finds the correct drug and titration. But sometimes even the best medications fail to treat someone with Post-traumatic stress disorder adequately. Psychotherapy may be helpful in some patients depending on the patient. In others,  there is less benefit and some dislike the thought of reliving the experience in order to learn coping mechanisms.

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Alternatives include non-pharmacologic measures including relaxation techniques such as doing yoga, Tai Chi or meditation. Exercise can often boost the mood and doing enjoyable activities may help alleviate symptoms without the addition of pharmacologic agents. Doing something one enjoys or taking joy in the simple activities in life such as writing poetry, art therapy, taking up a sport may help alleviate some of the stress. Great tips can be found on Psychiatrist, Dr. Welby’s site found here: https://drmelissawelby.com/exercise-depression-get-started-want-stay-bed/

More and more patients are turning towards alternative measures, finding that conventional medications are not always optimal. Cannabidiol works through the endocannabinoid pathway and modulates its effect through the CB1 receptor which is predominantly found in the nervous system. The CB2 receptor is found mostly in the immune system. In some studies, it was found that cannabidiol may help reduce fearful memory if taken in the conditioning phase so that rather than reacting to the stimulus with fear, the stimulus is then associated with a different reaction and may help mitigate the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder through this mechanism (1). In another study, it was found to influence synaptic dendrites and may contribute towards learned memory in the hippocampus (2).

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Cannabidiol interacts with the 5HT-A receptor which is an important receptor in mitigating the symptoms of anxiety. Serotonin works through the 5HT1-A receptors. Some anxiolytics and anti-depressants work through an increase in serotonin which boosts the mood. Cannabidiol itself is known to have a calming effect with none of the euphoria found in THC alone.   Cannabidiol is non-intoxicating and when combined with low dose tetrahydrocannabinol has great medical effects.

In summary, when medications and therapy are found to be ineffective for post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety or depression, cannabidiol which is non-intoxicating may be an effective therapeutic option alone or in conjunction with low dose THC and should be considered.

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References

  1. Uhernik, et al, “Learning and memory are modulated by cannabidiol when administered during trace fear-conditioning,” Neurobiology of Learned Memory, 2018, Feb., 9, 149:58-76. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.02.009 (Epub ahead of print)
  2. Lee, et al, “Cannabidiol regulation of emotion and emotional memory processing: relevance for treating anxiety-related and substance abuse disorder,” British Journal of Pharmacology, 2017, Oct., 174 (19): 3242-3256. doi: 10.1111/bph.13724. (Epub. 2017 Mar. 9.)
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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Epilepsy, Glaucoma, multiple sclerosis, pain, Parkinson's disaese, Peripheral neuropathy, Tumor

Medical marijuana: dispelling myths and fallacies behind cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol

Virginia Thornley, M.D. Neurologist, Epileptologist

Introduction

The endocannabinoid system is found naturally in the brain. It is responsible for the sense of well-being one gets after running a 5-mile course. It does not work through endorphins or adrenaline, as some people may think. It works at the level of the endocannabinoid system. There is a community of CBD producers and consumers and it is in this mysterious world that it is well-known to be used in many medical conditions, still shunned by the majority of the medical community, Congress and even patients in general. The 2 most commonly known are cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol. Cannabidiol has medical properties and has a weak affinity to the CB1 receptor which is predominantly found throughout the central nervous system, which is likely why it is found to work in numerous neurological conditions. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is a well-known cannabinoid most notoriously known for the euphoria of kingpins seen on movies propagated by pop culture. Unfortunately, these connotations overshadow the well-known medicinal benefits. Cannabinoids have been used for centuries even in the B.C. period. It was part of the American pharmacopeia in the 1980’s until it was banned in the 1930’s. Slowly, these products are gaining popularity as a treatment for many medical conditions, primarily neurological because the CB1 receptor is so abundant in the nervous system, due to patients becoming more and more frustrated with the adverse effects and ineffectiveness of conventional treatments. In Europe, a combination of THC and CBD have been used in multiple sclerosis patients since 2010.  Animal studies and cell line culture studies demonstrate many potential mechanisms in which CB1 receptors, CBD and THC may be beneficial at the cellular level in many diseases, mechanisms are still being elucidated. It is most commonly used for chronic pain and epilepsy. As with any medication, it may or not be effective for everybody.

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How it works–the nitty gritty

Cannabidiol has none of the psychoactive properties as THC. One needs 100 times the amount of CBD to have the same intoxication as THC. Therefore, it works well for those who are reluctant to go this route but who have found conventional medications which do not provide effectiveness, they are simply not cutting it. Because very little is know about its titration, medical marijuana can seem like entering into the world of an apothecary, or such as that found in the medieval days when potions are concocted. Physicians who use it in their treat it similar to a medication and the guidelines are similar start low and go slowly.  Tetrahydrocannabinol is more potent and at higher doses works more effectively for pain control and seizures. THC is used at relatively low concentrations in order to effect its medical properties, at higher concentrations one may run into side effects which offsets its medical value. There are different ratios of CBD:THC, different ratios correspond to different symptoms treated.  CBD is required in conjunction with THC in order to offset the potential side effects of THC. Tolerance does not build in the system such as that seen with opioids, although if one is medical marijuana naive, the lowest dose possible is ideal. There are no side effects of respiratory depression such as that seen with other medications for pain such as opioids.Consult with your treating physician.

Current legal state of affairs

Currently, there are many states that recognize the medical value of medical marijuana with medical marijuana laws allowing the opening of licensed dispensaries. However, the same cannot be said for the federal law.  In some states, the carrying of THC on your person can result in fines and imprisonment. Despite marijuana laws enacted, qualified physicians are at risk for being questioned by authorities, its recommendation and use is not for the faint of heart on the part of physicians and patients. Cannabidiol comes from hemp oil and is not considered illegal. However, anyone who even has 1% hemp oil in their product can still label that product as cannabidiol, which may be the reason why some patients are not getting the full medical effects when bought from the flea market or a vitamin store.  Tetrahydrocannabidiol which is more well-known for its recreational use and concomitant psychoactive properties at very high doses is federally illegal in many states. Many states often have registries so patients who require this may obtain an ID and verify they are under the care of a qualified physician. It can take a few months to obtain an ID because many patients are often at the end of their ropes in terms of effectiveness of medications. Many patients wish to come off opioids or do not like the idea of needing higher and higher pain medications for their chronic illnesses. It may serve as a great antidote for the current opioid crisis that is well-documented in the news or overdocumented in the news. Many mothers order products online from other countries to counteract the illegalities of their states in order to help their child who may be using 4 potent anti-epileptic agents and is now like a zombie because of the number of medications. While physicians are leery suggesting anything that is in category 1, its medical value cannot be disputed. There is too much evidence tipping it towards the other side of the scale. As tPA was in its infancy of use and physicians were hesitant using it due to its hemorrhagic adverse effect and is now the standard of care for stroke protocols, medical marijuana will likely find its way back into the pharmacopeia, the amount of medical evidence is far too compelling to ignore.

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In conclusion

In short, when used wisely, cannabidiol is a non-intoxicating effective treatment for many medical conditions especially neurologic, as evidenced by thousands of years of history of its use and current animal models, clinical trials and wider clinical experience in Europe. When cannabidiol is combined with low concentrations of THC, the medical effect is even greater with the entourage effect without the stigmatized psychoactive effects that are usually associated with THC.

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multiple sclerosis

Sativex (tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol) and the European experience in medically refractory spasticity in multiple sclerosis

Virginia Thornley, M.D., Neurologist, Epileptologist
March 12, 2018

Introduction

Sativex has been available in Europe since 2010. It is a combination of tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol at a ratio of 1:1 and has been found to be effective in spasticity resistant to medications in patients with multiple sclerosis. Spasticity is the increased tone seen in the muscles due to abnormalities in the central nervous system such as the white matter lesions seen in multiple sclerosis.

Sativex and medically refractory spasticity in multiple sclerosis

Sativex is a THC:CBD (tetrahydrocannabinol:cannabidiol) preparation taken oromucosally which was approved in European countries for the treatment of medically refractory spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis. Sativex contains a 1:1 ratio of THC to CBD, where THC interacts with CBD receptors to reduce spasticity while CBD ameliorates the side effects often seen with THC. In one large clinical trial of 1615 patients, 42% showed improvement of spasticity in the first 4 weeks, defined as > or = to 20% reduction in spasticity. The responders were double-blinded and grouped under placebo or THC:CBD, a larger proportion of patients had significant response compared to placebo, > or = to 30% reduction of NRS score for spasticity. 47% had adverse effects including fatigue and dizziness. Reported side effects included psychiatric disturbances, 55 had cognitive (attention problems, cognitive worsening and memory problems) and psychiatric issues (confusion, panic attacks, hallucinations, depression and suicidal ideations). Fatigue, drowsiness, dizziness, gastrointestinal symptoms, mouth discomfort and allergic reactions were other reported side effects. There was no evidence of abuse or addiction in the patients. There were significant side effects deemed unrelated to Sativex including, myocardial infarct, hypertensive crisis (2).

In the original MOVE 2 trial in Italy, in the 322 patients studied, the NRS numerical rating scale decreased by -19.1% from baseline time to 3 months of treatment with Sativex. At visit 3 at 3 months, 24.6% were considered relevant responders to the medication with 30% or more reduction in spasticity. Side effects of >1% included somnolence, dizziness, and fatigue. 41 patients reported side effects 3 were serious side effects of which one was not related (3).

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Sativex and studies in Germany, United Kingdom, Switzerland and Spain

Sativex was first approved in Spain and the United Kingdom in 2010 for use in spasticity related to multiple sclerosis. Data were collected to study continued efficacy and safety profiles.  941 patients (761 from the UK, 178 from Germany and 2 from Switzerland) were studied. Data was collected up until January of 2015.  A patient registry was set up as per guidelines before new medications are approved. Patients from the UK were 22% of the patients registered in the UK using that medication since 2010. Continuation rates were 1 year for 68% of patients. Among those who stopped it, 30% cited lack of effectiveness and 25% described side effects. Some significant side effects include suicidality in 2% and depression in 6%. There was no evidence of abuse, addiction or misuse. The fatigue was within the known safety margins of the drug. The patients used on average 5.9 +/- 4.9 sprays per day

In Spain, 204 patients were evaluated. After 6 months, 143 (70.1%) had benefited from using it for spasticity. After 12 months 64.7% derived beneficial effects. The average dose was 6.6 sprays a day. 41 patients had side effects consisting of psychiatric events, falls, reduced the ability to drive and others. Both study groups in the UK, Germany, Switzerland and in Spain both derived benefits justifying continued used of Sativex. Adverse effects were low, and the mean use of sprays was between 5.9-6.6 which was lower than the clinical trial using 8 sprays (4).

Sativex and timeline when it is found to be ineffective

In one large study in Italy involving 30 multiple sclerosis centers, the discontinuation profile was studied. Patient data from 30 MS centers were collected from a period of January 2014 to January 2015. 39.5% of patients disconnected treatment with Sativex. Spasticity was studied using the EDSS or expanded disability status scale and the patient NRS numerical rating scale 0-10 for spasticity. Information was collected at baseline (T0), 4 weeks (T1), 3 months (T2) and 6 months (T3).

Spasticity was noted in 1615 patients. 1597 (39.5%) discontinued treatment. Of those, 24.8% did not reach 20% effectiveness using the NRS scale. Reasons of discontinuing include lack of effectiveness 23%, side effects 16.3% and lack of compliance 0.8%, lost to follow-up 0.4%, patient choice 0.3% and unknown reasons 2%. Analysis showed that an increase in the NRS scale by 1 point at baseline time corresponded to a lower rate of discontinuation. While an increase in the NRS scale at timeline 2 or at 4 weeks corresponded with worsening spasticity and a higher non-responder rate. They concluded that Sativex is a good option for spasticity and by 4-6 weeks, patients can be reliably identified as responders or non-responders to avoid the cost burden on the healthcare system (1).

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Reference

  1. Messina, et al, “Sativex in resistant multiple sclerosis spasticity: discontinuation study in a large population of Italian patients (SA.FE. study), Public Library of Science PLoS One, 2017, 12(8) e0180651
  2. Patti, et al, “Efficacy and safety of cannabinoid oromucosal spray for multiple sclerosis spasticity,” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 2016, Sep., 87(9):944-951.
  3. Trojano, et al, “Effectiveness and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray for multiple sclerosis spasticity in Italy: first data from a large observational study,” European Neurology, 2015, 74:178-185,https://doi.org/10.1159/000441819
  4. Fernandez, et al, “THC:CBD in daily practice: available data from UK, Germany and Spain,”European Neurology, 2016, 75 (supp 1);1-3, https://doi.org/10.1159/000444234
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